La importancia de los ejemplos ilustrativos en el aprendizaje de conceptos declarativos

Verónica D'Angelo Masuh

doi:10.46553/RPSI.20.39.2024.p44-73

Authors

Verónica D'Angelo Masuh Instituto Rosario de Investigación en Ciencias de la Educación. Argentina

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.46553/RPSI.20.39.2024.p44-73

Keywords:

Cognitive psychology, Educational psychology, Instructional psychology, Concept formation, Declarative concepts, Illustrative examples

Abstract

A narrative review and analysis of the most relevant research in cognitive psychology on the use of illustrative examples for the learning of declarative concepts (that is, abstract concepts denoted by key terms and short definitions that can be applied to a wide variety of scenarios) is presented. ). Different studies are analyzed, namely: incorporation of questions in the text, contrast between studying definitions and examples or only definitions, contrast between studying provided examples Vs. examples created by the student, homogeneous examples Vs examples with thematic diversity. The conclusions highlight that the examples function as primary learning objectives. The importance of thematic diversity is emphasized.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Anderson, R. C., & Biddle, W. B. (1975). On Asking People Questions about What They are Reading. En G. H. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 9, pp. 89-132). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60269-8

Aristóteles (1982). Tratados de Lógica (Organon) I (M. C. Sanmartín, trad.). Madrid, Gredos.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. En Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89-195). Elsevier.

Baddeley, A. D., & Logie, R. H. (1999). Working memory: The multiple-component model. En A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 28-61). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174909.005

Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002). When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 612-637. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612

Barsalou, L. W. (1983). Ad hoc categories. Memory & cognition, 11, 211-227. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196968

Ben-Zeev, T.., & Star, J. R. (2001). Spurious correlations in mathematical thinking. Cognition and instruction, 19(3), 253-275. http://doi.org/10.1207/S1532690XCI1903_1

Braithwaite, D. W., & Goldstone, R. L. (2015). Effects of variation and prior knowledge on abstract concept learning. Cognition and Instruction, 33(3), 226-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.2015.1067215

Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). A study of thinking. Wiley.

Chang, N. M. (2006). Learning to discriminate and generalize through problem comparisons [Tesis doctoral]. Carnegie Mellon University.

Chang, N. M., Koedinger, K. R., & Lovett, M. C. (2003). Learning spurious correlations instead of deeper relations. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 25(25).

Chen, Z., & Mo, L. (2004). Schema induction in problem solving: A multidimensional analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(3), 583-600. http://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.3.583

Cheng, P. W., & Holyoak, K. J. (1985). Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology, 17(4), 391-416. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(85)90014-3

Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive science, 5(2), 121-152. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2

Cosmides, L. (1989). The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task. Cognition, 31(3), 187-276. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(89)90023-1

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 11(6), 671-684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X

D’Angelo, V. S. (2023). El uso de ejemplos ilustrativos durante el aprendizaje de conceptos declarativos [Tesis doctoral]. https://rdu.unc.edu.ar/handle/11086/549911

D’Angelo, V. S., & Trench, M. (2020). Enhancing distant analogical retrieval via generating abstract redescriptions of the target. Conceptual Abstraction and Analogy in Natural and Artificial Systems” symposium of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI), Washington, DC, US.

D’Angelo, V. S., & Trench, M. (2022). Defending Diversity: Providing Examples from Different Domains Enhances Application of System Principles Beyond the Domains Covered by the Examples. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 44. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/85k6f518

Day, S. B., & Gentner, D. (2007). Nonintentional analogical inference in text comprehension. Memory & cognition, 35(1), 39-49. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195940

Day, S. B., & Goldstone, R. L. (2011). Analogical transfer from a simulated physical system. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37(3), 551-567. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022333

Day, S. B., & Goldstone, R. L. (2012). The import of knowledge export: Connecting findings and theories of transfer of learning. Educational Psychologist, 47(3), 153-176. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2012.696438

Day, S. B., Goldstone, R. L., & Hills, T. (2010). The effects of similarity and individual differences on comparison and transfer. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 32(32).

Elqayam, S., & Over, D. E. (2013). New paradigm psychology of reasoning: An introduction to the special issue edited by Elqayam, Bonnefon, and Over. Thinking & Reasoning, 19(3-4), 249-265. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2013.841591

Fodor, J. A. (1983). The modularity of mind. MIT press. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0vg0AwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP8&dq=modularity+of+mind&ots=IxDt0WVWuH&sig=EfcWQmxMbBAuWZXOwSRKHJxlJIA

Gentner, D. (1983). Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science, 7(2), 155-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0364-0213(83)80009-3

Gentner, D. (1989). The mechanisms of analogical learning. En S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 199-241). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511529863.011

Gentner, D., & Kurtz, K. J. (2005). Relational categories. En W.-K. Ahn, R. L. Goldstone, B. C. Love, A. B. Markman, & P. Wolff (Eds.), Categorization inside and outside the laboratory: Essays in honor of Douglas L. Medin (pp. 151-175). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11156-009

Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 393-408. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.393

Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American Psychologist, 52(1), 45-56. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.1.45

Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology, 15(1), 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(83)90002-6

Gigerenzer, G., & Hug, K. (1992). Domain-specific reasoning: Social contracts, cheating, and perspective change. Cognition, 43(2), 127-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(92)90060-U

Goldstone, R. L., & Wilensky, U. (2008). Promoting Transfer by Grounding Complex Systems Principles. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 17(4), 465-516. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508400802394898

Goldwater, M. B., Markman, A. B., & Stilwell, C. H. (2011). The empirical case for role-governed categories. Cognition, 118(3), 359-376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.10.009

Goldwater, M. B., & Schalk, L. (2016). Relational categories as a bridge between cognitive and educational research. Psychological Bulletin, 142(7), 729-757. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000043

Halford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., & Phillips, S. (2010). Relational knowledge: The foundation of higher cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(11), 497-505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.08.005

Hamilton, R. J. (1989). The Effects of Learner-Generated Elaborations on Concept Learning from Prose. The Journal of Experimental Education, 57(3), 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.1989.10806506

Hamilton, R. J. (1990). The Effect of Elaboration on the Acquisition of Conceptual Problem-Solving Skills from Prose. The Journal of Experimental Education, 59(1), 5-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.1990.10806547

Honke, G., & Kurtz, K. J. (2019). Similarity is as similarity does? A critical inquiry into the effect of thematic association on similarity. Cognition, 186, 115-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.01.016

Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Byrne, R. M. J. (1991). Deduction (pp. xii, 243). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Johnson-Laird, P. N., Legrenzi, P., & Legrenzi, M. S. (1972). Reasoning and a Sense of Reality. British Journal of Psychology, 63(3), 395-400. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1972.tb01287.x

Kintsch, W. (1974). The representation of meaning in memory (pp. vii, 279). Lawrence Erlbaum.

Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge university press.

Kintsch, W., & Rawson, K. A. (2005). Comprehension. En M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 209-226). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757642.ch12

Kurtz, K. J., Boukrina, O., & Gentner, D. (2013). Comparison promotes learning and transfer of relational categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39(4), 1303-1310. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031847

Kurtz, K. J., & Honke, G. (2020). Sorting out the problem of inert knowledge: Category construction to promote spontaneous transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46(5), 803-821. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000750

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation (p. 138). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815355

Loewenstein, J. (2010). Chapter 4—How One’s Hook Is Baited Matters for Catching an Analogy. En B. H. Ross (Ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 53, pp. 149-182). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(10)53004-4

Loewenstein, J., Thompson, L., & Gentner, D. (2003). Analogical Learning in Negotiation Teams: Comparing Cases Promotes Learning and Transfer. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2(2), 119-127. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2003.9901663

Markman, A. B., & Stilwell, C. H. (2001). Role-governed categories. Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 13(4), 329-358. https://doi.org/10.1080/09528130110100252

Mayer, R. E. (2019). Thirty years of research on online learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(2), 152-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3482

Medin, D. L., & Schaffer, M. M. (1978). Context theory of classification learning. Psychological review, 85(3), 207-238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.85.3.207

Merrill, M. D., Tennyson, R. D., & Posey, L. O. (1992). Teaching Concepts: An Instructional Design Guide. Educational Technology.

Mervis, C. B., & Rosch, E. (1981). Categorization of natural objects. Annual review of psychology, 32(1), 89-115. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.32.020181.000513

Minervino, R. A., Olguín, V., & Trench, M. (2017). Promoting interdomain analogical transfer: When creating a problem helps to solve a problem. Memory & Cognition, 45(2), 221-232. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-016-0655-2

Over, D. E. (2009). New paradigm psychology of reasoning. Thinking & Reasoning, 15(4), 431-438. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546780903266188

Paas, F. G., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. (1994). Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach. Journal of educational psychology, 86(1), 122-133. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122

Patterson, J. D., & Kurtz, K. J. (2014). Engaging the comparison engine: Implications for relational category learning and transfer. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 36(36).

Patterson, J. D., & Kurtz, K. J. (2020). Comparison-based learning of relational categories (you’ll never guess). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46(5), 851-871. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/xlm0000758

Penn, D. C., Holyoak, K. J., & Povinelli, D. J. (2008). Darwin’s mistake: Explaining the discontinuity between human and nonhuman minds. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31(2), 109-130. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X08003543

Piaget, J. (1959). La formación del símbolo en el niño: Imitación, juego y sueño. Imagen y representación. Fondo de cultura económica. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2m7DDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT5&dq=piaget+simbolo+en+el+ni%C3%B1o&ots=VyvooWkw73&sig=2Z595NAd-Ki9XvYTWU5tbDuh1KU

Piaget, J. (1973). Génesis de las estructuras lógicas elementales. https://biblioteca.uazuay.edu.ec/buscar/item/20941

Piaget, J. (1984). La representación del mundo en el niño. Ediciones Morata. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Ez_KcXS8_lUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA11&dq=piaget+La+representaci%C3%B3n+del+mundo+en+el+ni%C3%B1o%22+(1926&ots=eVn8JU-5Qz&sig=RfKo3bJmykPp-UwCz90llzsBlvQ

Quilici, J. L., & Mayer, R. E. (1996). Role of examples in how students learn to categorize statistics word problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 144-161. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.144

Quilici, J. L., & Mayer, R. E. (2002). Teaching students to recognize structural similarities between statistics word problems. Applied Cognitive Psychology: The Official Journal of the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 16(3), 325-342. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.796

Rawson, K. A., & Dunlosky, J. (2016). How effective is example generation for learning declarative concepts? Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 649-672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9377-z

Rawson, K. A., Thomas, R. C., & Jacoby, L. L. (2015). The Power of Examples: Illustrative Examples Enhance Conceptual Learning of Declarative Concepts. Educational Psychology Review, 27(3), 483-504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9273-3

Reeves, L., & Weisberg, R. W. (1994). The role of content and abstract information in analogical transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 115(3), 381-400. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.381

Rehder, B., & Ross, B. H. (2001). Abstract coherent categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27(5), 1261-1275. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0278-7393.27.5.1261

Resnick, L. B. (2010). Nested learning systems for the thinking curriculum. Educational researcher, 39(3), 183-197. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X10364671

Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of categorization. En B. B. Lloyd (Ed.), Cognition and Categorization (pp. 27-48). Erlbaum.

Smith, E. E., & Medin, D. L. (1981). Categories and concepts (Vol. 9). Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA.

Snoddy, S., & Kurtz, K. J. (2017). Promoting Spontaneous Analogical Transfer: The Role of Category Status. Cognitive Science.

Snoddy, S., & Kurtz, K. J. (2021). Preventing inert knowledge: Category status promotes spontaneous structure-based retrieval of prior knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 47(4), 571-607. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000974

Wissman, K. T., Zamary, A., Rawson, K. A., & Dunlosky, J. (2023). Enhancing declarative concept application: The utility of examples as primary targets of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 29(2), 341-357. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000432

Zamary, A. S., & Rawson, K. A. (2016). Which technique is most effective for learning declarative concepts—Provided examples, generated examples, or both? Educational Psychology Review, 30(1), 275-301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9396-9

Zamary, A. S., & Rawson, K. A. (2018). Are Provided Examples or Faded Examples More Effective for Declarative Concept Learning? Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 1167-1197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-018-9433-y

Zhang, D. (2019). Remindings in Declarative Concept Learning. https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/633146

Zwaan, R. A., & Radvansky, G. A. (1998). Situation models in language comprehension and memory. Psychological Bulletin, 123(2), 162-185. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.123.2.162